STUDY GUIDE
Makah Indians
- People of the Salmon - village of Ozette,
- On Northwest coast of what is now Washington State
- Buried in a mud slide about the time of Columbus
- Hierarchical Society based on wealth and status
Potlatch ceremony
- A Ceremony of feasting, singing, dancing and gift giving.
- Given to announce a change in status – birth, wedding, inheriting a title
- Preparations for a year or more – gathering food and gifts for over 200 people for a celebration that might last several days
Tainos
- Indians of the Caribbean
- Hierarchical society -- elites called Tainos --controlled much in society
- Tainos wore ornaments of feathers and gold and were carried in chairs.
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Woodland Indians
- Prevalent in Eastern and Midwestern North America
- Hunters and farmers
- Typically lived near rivers and oceans in spring, summer and early fall to farm and fish.
- Would move to higher ground in woods and mountains in winter
Cultural Exchanges between Natives and Europeans – all facets discussed
- Domestic and Wild Animals:
Beef cows, dairy cows, pigs, sheep, horses, goats, donkeys, rats
- Insects:
Honeybees, cockroaches
• Foods:
wheat, barley, oats, rice, sugar, coffee
• Technology:
metal goods, guns, metal pots, glass beads
• Ideas:
Christianity, Capitalism, the plantation system
• People:
European explorers, settlers, and servants African slaves
• Epidemic diseases:
influenza (flu), typhus, plague, measles, chickenpox, smallpox
• Native Americans possessed little or no immunity to European diseases.
• Native Americans died en masse due to simple illnesses like chickenpox and major illnesses like smallpox.
Cultural Differences: Ideas
• Native Americans Europeans
• Held land in common Private property
• Gov’t of tribal chiefs Monarchy and laws
• Oral culture Writing & printing
• Seasonal subsistence Farming & capitalism
• Gods in nature One (1) God in heaven
• Shaman Priests & ministers
• Slave “adoption” Slave purchase or theft
Pocahontas
- Daughter of Powhatan
• Most experts now believe she never saw Capt. Smith before the submission ceremony in 1607. She was 12 at the time.
• Married a Native leader at age 14 or 15.
• Lured aboard and English ship and held captive by Samuel Argall.
• Held hostage in Jamestown for over a year
• Lived with a Rev. Whitaker
• Whitaker and Deputy Gov. Thomas Dale “instructed” her in Christianity
• John Rolfe fell in love with her during this period and asked Gov. Dale for her hand in marriage.
• The marriage sealed a peace treaty between the English and Powhatan.
• She was 18 and still supposedly married to her native husband.
• Two years later she went to England with Rolfe and their baby boy
• Became a celebrity: “Indian princess”
• Received by King James I
• Visited by John Smith
• About to set sail for return to America on a ship captained by Samuel Argall
- Died of unknown illness.
Rationale behind European empire-building
1. profit – increase wealth of nation
2. power – bigger realm=more “important realm”
3. religion – spread Christianity (could be sincere concern for Native souls, or, more often, religion was used as an excuse for taking profit and power)
Quebec
- French in Quebec, 1608
• A center for fur trade and shipbuilding
“black robes”
• Became center of the French empire in America and of Catholic religion missions with convents, monasteries, and missionaries that would go out to the Indian tribes – “Black robes.”
• Majority of settlers were men seeking riches in the fur trade
• Some French settlers cultivated farms along the St Lawrence BUT,
• overall, New France was very thinly settled
Santa Fe
• 1609 - Santa Fe - Founded by the Spanish
• 1680 - The Pueblo Revolt – the Native peoples took control of Santa Fe and its surrounding area – drove the Spanish out
• Mid-1690s – Spanish re-conquered Santa Fe
• Late 1600s - Spanish also move into Texas to counter French settlements on the lower Mississippi River
St. Augustine
• 1565 - Spanish Settlements in Cape Canaveral and St. Augustine in (present-day) Florida
Virginia
• “Success” in land called Virginia
• Virginia would become the largest and most populated state when the USA came into being in 1776
• In the decades following 1776, the entire states of West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana and Illinois, and portions of Ohio were created from the original state of Virginia
• Between 1585 and 1587, several groups attempted to establish a colony on Roanoke Island, but the settlers either abandoned the settlement or disappeared.
Jamestown
• First permanent English settlement in New World in 1607
• Founded by the Virginia Company with 104 colonists on 3 ships
• Situated on low-lying, marshy, mosquito-ridden island on the James River
• Named in honor of King James I, it was the first capital of the Virginia colony
• Built a triangular fort and the colonists lived within the walls of the fort at first
• The settlement was disease prone and frequently attacked by Indians
New England
• 1620s - Pilgrims at Plymouth
• 1628 - Dorchester Company at Salem
• 1630 - Massachusetts Bay Company at Boston under John Winthrop
• 10,000 people to Massachusetts Bay Colony in first 10 years
Puritans
– Puritans – wanted to “purify” the Church of England
– Wanted to simplify rituals
– Concentrate on the Bible as the word of God
– Everyone should learn to read the Bible = widespread literacy
– Puritans threatened the supremacy of the Church of England, and Puritans were persecuted for it
Compare and contrast New England and the Chesapeake – all facets discussed
New England and the Chesapeake
• Who Came?
• Whole families, sometimes w/ servants
• “Middling sort”
• Farmers, craftsmen, fishermen, a few gentry
• From East Anglia in England – a mixed farming region with fisheries and market towns
– Mostly young single men
– Younger sons of gentry from Southwestern England or
– Indentured servants – poorer, landless cloth workers or farm laborers who sold their time – anywhere from 4 to 7 years – to pay for passage across the Atlantic
– After the early years, (usually) lower class women came as well
• Why did they come?
• 1. Religious reasons
• Puritans – wanted to “purify” the Church of England
• Wanted to simplify rituals
• Concentrate on the Bible as the word of God
• Everyone should learn to read the Bible = widespread literacy
– Puritans threatened the supremacy of the Church of England, and Puritans were persecuted for it
• 2. Economic opportunity
– Landownership in England very restricted
– Enclosures had driven cottagers off their property
– Depressions in the wool industry in 1620s
– Difficult economic times even for John Winthrop, Governor of Mass. Bay Company
• Primarily economic opportunity
– In England, the system of primogeniture meant that all property usually went to the oldest son, leaving out the other sons
– Most of those who came as indentured servants saw little chance at making a living in England
John Winthrop
• 1588-1649
• Perhaps most famous for his sermon “A Model of Christian Charity,” where he warned the Puritan colonists of Massachusetts Bay Colony that their new community would be a "city upon a hill" watched by the world
• Born and raised in a gentry family
• Winthrop owned manor house and property in Suffolk, England
• Educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge – Known as a “Puritan college”
• Winthrop trained as a lawyer
• Became justice of the peace in Sussex
Capt. John Smith De facto Leader
• Had been a soldier and fought against the Ottoman Turks in Eastern Europe
• Attracted attention of people in high places, and was invited to join the Virginia Company
• After his return to England, he wrote numerous “bestselling” books about his travels and adventures
Sir William Berkeley
• 1605-1677
• Gentry origins
• Writer and playwright, gained favor with King Charles I
• Pushed for diversification in Virginia economy
• Strongly opposed religious dissenters, rabble-rousers, and public education
• Failure to save Jamestown during Bacon’s Rebellion led to his dismissal and disgrace
• Died a broken man in England
Bacon’s Rebellion - tell what it is, and its implications for Virginia
• Armed uprising began in 1674
• Led by Nathaniel Bacon, a well-off, young planter
• Bacon led poor whites in a protest against Native Americans and the elitist policies of Gov. Berkeley
• Sporadic episodes of violence culminating in the 1676 burning of Jamestown to the ground
• Bacon’s death in October, 1676, broke the rebellion, allowing Gov. Berkeley to regain control of his colony
• Berkeley seized the rebels’ property and hung 23 of them
• Berkeley was removed from office by King Charles II
• Historians’ interpretation of the post-Rebellion years: The fear of a white lower-class rebellion hastened the hardening of racial attitudes, culminating in a united “white race” opposing a degraded “black race.”
Compare and contrast ancient (“Greek and Roman”) slavery to the system of slavery
that developed beginning in the 15th century.
– Before this, slaves were not used to grow crops
– Work was so brutal that slaves on sugar plantations rarely lived long enough to establish families and raise children
– Labor had to be constantly replenished through the slave trade
• Europeans exploited various African kingdoms’ willingness to sell enemies into slavery began in 16th century
• Once the trade was fully developed, captured Africans were held at “slave castles” for transport on “slavers” – the dreaded slave ships
Sugar and its importance to the history of slavery
Plantation Complex – Definition and Characteristics
• The growing of sugar from the Mediterranean combined with slave labor from Africa to create the first “plantation complex”
– Emerged from European efforts to grow sugar
– First developed in the Atlantic Islands
– Then moved to South America and the Caribbean Islands
• Characteristics:
– 1. Forced labor – mostly slaves
– 2. Population not self-sustaining
– 3. Large-scale capitalist agriculture, meaning “cash crops”
– 4. Owner had legal control over workers/slaves
– 5. Supplied distant markets
– 6. Political control from another continent
Canaries, Azores, and Madeira
• Canary Islands – off the coast of North Africa, discovered by Spain in 1320s, inhabited by the Guanche people
– Became sugar plantations in 1400s
• Madeira – off the coast of North Africa, uninhabited
– Settled by Portuguese in 1420s
– Began sugar planting in 1455– grown by small farmers
– Initially cane was shipped to Antwerp (in present-day Belgium) for refining
– 70 ships plied the Madeira-Antwerp route by 1480
Barbados
• England started sugar production in Barbados in the 1640s
• (South) Carolina was settled in the 1660s by English sugar planters from Barbados
Tobacco
• Tobacco introduced as cash crop in 1620s
– A labor intensive crop required more workers
– Planters preferred white indentured servants
Indentured servitude
• Initial labor force: young English men
• Indentured servants – worked 4-7 years to pay for passage
– Given land – up to 50 acres at end of time
The gradual replacement of indentured servants with slaves in colonial Virginia –
Why and how did this happen, and over what time period?
1. Fewer people leaving England
• Conditions in England improve
– Lower population growth = less competition for jobs
• Economic opportunity improving
– Less competition for jobs = higher wages paid
• Thus, the laboring poor could obtain jobs in England that paid a living wage
2. Fewer English Migrants go to Virginia
• Less “good” land available for servants after indenture over
• Increased supply of tobacco means profits are lower during the later decades of 17th century
• Word of difficult working conditions, short life span, and condescending local elites became more widely known in England, giving Virginia a reputation as a “hell hole”
“seasoned” slaves
a term used by whites, meaning that the slaves had adjusted to both the hard work and the climate, and had survived tropical diseases, developing some immunological response
Slavery in Virginia vs. slavery in South Carolina (task system vs. gang system, and
Its implications)
• Slaves worked in a gang system – as a group from dawn to dusk, and sometimes late into the evening, depending on what the crop and the master required
• 90% of slaves and indentured servants – men and women -- worked in the tobacco fields
• Worked under the task system - the master defined what was expected per day at a given job. When that work was completed, the slave’s required work was done for the day. –South Carolina
– Gave slaves much more flexibility
– They could use time to grow extra food or make things to sell at market.
Population growth in the 18th century – How did this happen? Who participated?
1. Immigration and population growth 2. Economic Changes
3. Increased hierarchy and class differences 4. Enlightenment
5. (The First) Great Awakening 6. French and Indian War (& 1763)
New Sources of Immigration:
◦ French Huguenots to Boston, New York and Charleston (after revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685)
◦ German Protestants to Pennsylvania, New York state and North Carolina
◦ Scots-Irish to the “Backcountry”
◦ Scots Highlanders to North Carolina
◦ a few Swiss to North Carolina and Georgia
The economic basis of each British North American colonial region
Port cities like Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston: Trade and shipbuilding are expanding
New England: a prosperous, diversified economy
Middle Colonies: strong farming area with iron foundries and craft production in cities and towns
Chesapeake and North Carolina: Tobacco is well-established
South Carolina: Rice and indigo are well-established and major cash crops
The “merchant elite”
Urbanization = Larger towns and cities
◦ Boston population to 15,000
Rise of a merchant elite who built elegant homes and public buildings
◦ Purchased goods from around the world
These imported (usually luxurious) things helped fashion an “Anglo-American identity”
◦ Lifestyle comparable to gentry in English provincial towns like Bristol
Growing inequality of wealth: Rich getting richer, poor falling behind.
The Enlightenment
Intellectual movement that began in Europe in the early 18th century
◦ Based on writings of French and English philosophers, especially Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire
Applied the idea of reason and scientific method to the study of mankind and government
Natural rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness (self-interest) apply to each individual
The Great Awakening
After a decline in religious and participation, a revival of religion began in the 1730s.
◦ Leading ministers in the revival included Jonathan Edwards in Massachusetts, Gilbert Tennent in New Jersey, and the traveling evangelist George Whitefield.
The revival emphasized each individual’s relationship with God and their own responsibility for their spiritual well being
The message appealed most to the many people who had been left out of the growing prosperity in America, and empowered them.
George Whitefield
Whitefield, a Methodist from England, traveled from Georgia to New England preaching to huge crowds in open fields or town squares along the way
◦ The earliest form of “tent revival”
Whitefield was a very compelling speaker and created a strong emotional response in the crowds
Salutary Neglect
Coined by historians, the term refers to the lack of strict enforcement of Parliamentary laws regarding the American colonies.
British politicians theorized that American colonies would remain obedient to Britain as long as the colonists were left alone as much as practicable
Three Stages:
From 1607-1696, Britain had no coherent imperial policy
From 1696-1763, Britain tried to form a coherent policy (Navigation Acts), but did not enforce it
From 1763-1775, salutary neglect ended, and Britain tried to impose official imperial policy (along with increased taxation)
Since the imperial authority did not assert the power that it had, the colonists were left to govern themselves
Colonies soon became accustomed to the idea of self-control
The role of Royal Governors became a flashpoint of debate and power negotiation in the colonies
Successful Royal Governors usually ceded some executive powers to local colonial assemblies
Most colonists maintained allegiance to the King, but many felt Parliament ignored them, except to extract from them both wealth and men during wartime
The effects of such prolonged isolation eventually resulted in the emergence of a collective identity that considered itself separate from Great Britain
The policy of salutary neglect ended in 1763, after the French and Indian War
The French and Indian War – all facets discussed
Intermittent fighting, 1754-1763
Refers to the American portion of the larger European conflict called the “Seven Years War”
The name refers to the two allied enemies of the British: the royal French forces and the various Native American forces allied with the French
1760 – Quebec City falls to the British, ending most of the fighting
Spain was alarmed, as British victory ended the European “balance of power” in America
1763 – War officially ended with Treaty of Paris
Britain gained all of New France (Canada) and the Caribbean islands of Grenada, St. Vincent, and Tobago
France ceded Louisiana territory and the city of New Orleans to its ally Spain
Outcomes of the War
Britain spent £4 million on the war – the largest transatlantic expenditure by a European power to that time
– Resulted in a huge public debt in Britain
The sparsely settled New France (and its discontented French inhabitants) would prove costly to administer and defend
Arrogant British policy toward the Natives sparked a new “unity” among Native tribes in opposition
Proclamation Line of 1763
Proclamation Line of 1763
Established to ease tensions between Natives and colonists, by ending westward expansion of white settlement
Bitterly resented (and challenged) by colonists
25,000 British troops were kept in colonies to maintain order and provide for defense
Result: Colonists resented this new material presence of imperial policy
British politicians felt colonists should help pay for both the war debt and the new costs of administering the new colonial holdings
Result: New taxes on colonists
“No Taxation without Representation!” and the various Acts of Parliament that
prompted this Complaint
The end of the French and Indian War also ended the booming war economy enjoyed by colonists; thus, the colonial economy fell into deep recession
Sugar Act of 1764
– Imposed a tax of 3 pence per gallon of molasses imported from French sugar island
Stamp Act of 1765
– Required the purchase of a half-penny tax stamp on all printed materials and government documents
Many colonists felt the taxes imposed on them reduced them to the level of slaves
– The rationale for this was tied into the traditional “rights of Englishmen” – one of those being the right to be represented by a member of Parliament
Since colonists had no Parliamentary representative, they felt the Crown had imposed on them as a master imposes on his slaves
Begin to see references to “the rights of the people” and “liberty” in printed documents of the time
In 1765, 1768, and 1774 organized boycotts of British goods were staged
Townshend Acts, 1767 – 1770
– Series of Acts designed to raise revenue in the colonies, restrain crowd action, and assert Parliament’s right to make law for the colonies
Sons of Liberty – men’s group that discussed liberty and other Enlightenment theories; sometimes conspired to stage public demonstrations
Daughters of Liberty – organized by men, this women’s group organized resistance to paying British taxes
– For instance, the Daughters organized the making of homespun cloth to resist the British tax on cloth
Boston Massacre
March 5, 1770
Resulted from a heavy British military presence in Boston
Tension boiled over to incite brawls between soldiers and civilians, eventually leading to troops discharging their muskets after being attacked by a rioting crowd
Three civilians were killed at the scene of the shooting, and two died after the incident
American patriots turn the skirmish into an iconic image of British tyranny
Boston Tea Party
December 16, 1773
Protested the Tea Act of 1773, which was designed to aid the East India Tea Company, a state monopoly on the tea trade in the British Empire
Sons of Liberty, dressed as Native Americans, dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor - £90,000 worth
Edenton Tea Party
Other colonists approved this radical action, including a group of women in Edenton, NC
– The first female-organized group action in American history
Penelope Barker, leader of the “Edenton Tea Party”:
First Continental Congress
September 5, 1774 – The First Continental Congress convenes in Philadelphia, consisting of representatives from all 13 colonies except Georgia. The Congress:
– agrees to stage an organized boycott of British goods, and cease exporting goods to Britain if the “Intolerable Acts” are not repealed
– agrees to send an appeal directly to King George III, bypassing Parliament.
– agrees to reconvene on May 10, 1775, inviting Georgia AND all other mainland British territories to send representatives.
Committees of Correspondence
1772 – Founded in Boston, Massachusetts
1773 – Founded in Virginia
By 1774, most mainland colonies have formed Committees
These Committees coordinated written correspondence outside their particular colony, disseminating a “colonial” interpretation of British actions between the colonies and to foreign governments.
The Committees were vital to the formation of the First Continental Congress.
Samuel Adams (the historical figure, not the beer)
1772 – Founded in Boston, Massachusetts
1773 – Founded in Virginia
By 1774, most mainland colonies have formed Committees
These Committees coordinated written correspondence outside their particular colony, disseminating a “colonial” interpretation of British actions between the colonies and to foreign governments.
The Committees were vital to the formation of the First Continental Congress.
Battles of Lexington and Concord
April 19, 1775 – “shot heard ‘round the world”
On the night of April 18, 1775, British Gen. Gage (military Governor of Mass.) dispatched 700 soldiers to capture colonial leaders and supplies at Concord, MA – Paul Revere famously warned “The British are Coming!”
At dawn on April 19, local militiamen clashed with British soldiers at Lexington, MA, Concord, MA, and a handful of countryside skirmishes – colonists won the day - became a real (and a propaganda) victory for the colonists
Mass. Committee of Correspondence dispatched letters to other colonies and foreign countries to explain the colonial viewpoint of the hostilities
Though colonists fired first, British were blamed for opening hostilities
Lexington and Concord are usually recognized by historians as first “official” battle in the Revolutionary War
Second Continental Congress
Opened on May 10, 1775 – Philadelphia
Since hostilities had opened, the major task of Congress was to coordinate and control the war
Until early 1776, most Congressmen hoped for reconciliation with British
Assumed prerogatives of a national government, including appointing ambassadors, signing treaties, raising armies, appointing generals, obtaining loans from Europe, issuing paper money, and disbursing funds
Sessions of Congress met at various times around Pennsylvania and Maryland until 1781, when the Articles of Confederation were enacted
Common Sense by Thomas Paine
Written by Thomas Paine, a recent immigrant from England
Sold 500,000 copies in 25 editions during 1776
Structured like a sermon, made Biblical references
Denounced not just King George III, but monarchy itself
Suggested a form of republican government for America
Thomas Jefferson
1743 – 1826
Virginia planter and “renaissance man”
Highly intelligent, well-educated and well-read
Conflicted about religion and slave-owning
Chosen to draft Declaration because of his reputation as a writer and speaker
July 4, 1776 (or thereabouts!) Declaration of Independence
May 15, 1776 – Passed a resolution regarding the King’s abuses
July 2, 1776 – 12 of the 13 colonies voted for independence
July 4, 1776 – wording of Declaration was approved and sent to the printers
Historians debate when the document was actually signed – probably signed over the course of the next six weeks
John Hancock
1737 - 1793
Elected President of 2nd Cont. Congress
Boston merchant and shipper; one of the wealthiest men in America
Supported the appointment of George Washington as commander of the new Continental Army
Articles of Confederation
The Congress was divided between those seeking a powerful, centralized national government, and those seeking a loosely-structured one
Idea of a limited central government won the day
Congress approved the Articles in late 1777
Disputes among the states over their western land claims delayed ratification until 1781
The “Patriots”
Patriots – colonists who sided with America during the Revolution (about 30-40% of the colonial population)
The “Loyalists”
Loyalists – also called “Tories” - colonists who maintained allegiance to either the King and/or the British Crown (about 15-20% of colonial population)
George Washington
1732 – 1799
Selected as commander of Continental Army
Middle-class background; became an elite Virginia planter by marriage and ingenuity
Military reputation outweighed reality
Inspired loyalty and patriotism in his men
Known as the “Father of the Country”
Treaty of Paris (1783)
Acknowledges the 13 colonies to be free, sovereign and independent States
Establishes boundaries between the USA and British North America
Provides for restitution to Loyalists whose property was confiscated during War, and for the payment of debts accrued during War
Returns slaves who fought for the British to their owners
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